I thank David Breeze and the editors of this volume for their comments on a first draft of this paper.
Gallic War, I, 1, 3-2,1.
Roymans 2019a, p. 80-83.
Gallic War, II, 3, 4; IV, 1; VI, 2, 3;32, 1
Caesar, Gallic War, V, 2, 4; VI, 2, 3; 9, 1; Tacitus, Germany, XXVIII, 4.
Caesar, Gallic War, I, 35; IV, 16; VI, 9, 1. See Whittaker 1994, passim, on the role of ‘natural’ boundaries in Roman imperial rhetoric and space…
Gallic War, IV, 16, 4.
Gallic War, IV, 4.
Gallic War, IV, 11-15. For Caesar’s genocidal campaigns in northern Gaul: Roymans 2019b.
Cassius Dio, Roman History, LI, 20, 5; Metzler 1995, p. 95-98, 111-119; Löhr 2003.
Timbers of the earliest bridge at Trier date to 18 and 17 BC: Hollstein 1980, p. 135.
Kemmers 2006, p. 57-67.
Tacitus, Annals, XII, 27, 1, and Strabo, Geography, IV, 3, 4, say that the Ubii were transferred under the governorship of Agrippa. Eck 2004, p. 46…
Tacitus, Histories, IV, 12, 2; Germany, XXIX, 1. Silver staters of the Lith type were long considered a proxy for the early Batavian settlers and…
Roymans (forthcoming).
Polak, Kooistra 2013, p. 395.
Cassius Dio, Roman History, LIV, 20, 4-5; Velleius Paterculus, History, II, 97, 1.
Polak, Kooistra 2013, p. 397.
Kerremans 2018.
In response to Lollius’ defeat, both Cassius Dio, Roman History, LIV, 20, 6, and Velleius Paterculus, History, II, 97, 1, state.
Eck 2018, p. 132-133. After the sudden death of Agrippa early in 12 BC, Tiberius took over Illyricum.
Graafstal 2023, p. 22-24.
Cassius Dio, Roman History, LIV, 32, 1-2.
Cassius Dio, Roman History, LIV, 32, 1; Livy, Periochae, CXXXIX. See Polak, Kooistra 2013, p. 404-405. After the Varian disaster of AD 9, several…
Strabo, Geography, VII, 1, 3, with Polak, Kooistra 2013, p. 406.
Roman History, LIV, 32, 1, implies that campaigning had started well before the inauguration of the altar at Lyon on August 1.
See Polak, Kooistra 2013, p. 405; 412-413.
Tacitus, Annals, IV, 72, 1: cowhides for military use.
Kühlborn 1992, p. 122-133.
Cassius Dio, Roman History, LIV, 33, 4.
Cassius Dio, Roman History, LIV, 33, 1-2.
Cassius Dio, Roman History, LIV, 36, 3; LV, 1, 2-3.
Timpe 2007.
Suebi are mentioned among the allegedly 40.000 people resettled on the left bank of the Rhine by Tiberius following his successful sweep over…
Annals XIII, 53, 2; Histories, V, 19, with Polak, Kooistra 2013, p. 401, 404, 407.
Velleius Paterculus, History, II, 97, 4: Tiberius “subdued the country as to reduce it almost to the status of a tributary province” (trans. …
Velleius Paterculus, History, II, 104-109.
Res gestae Diui Augusti, XXVI.
von Schnurbein 2003.
Eck 2013, p. 21. Cassius Dio, Roman History, LVI, 18, 1, speaks in the plural (poleis).
von Schnurbein 2003, p. 97.
Eck 2004, p. 16-17.
Eck 2013, p. 22.
Tacitus, Annals, I, 57, 2.
Eck 2018, p. 137.
Eck 2018, p. 134 (author’s rephrasing).
Velleius Paterculus, History, II, 120-121.
Becker, Rasbach 2016, p. 68-72.
Syme 1978, p. 53-61.
By then a praesidium had been placed in Chaucian territory: Tacitus, Annals, I, 38, 1.
Tacitus, Annals, I, 11, 4. Eck 2018, p. 135-137.
Tacitus, Annals, II, 26.
Eck 2013, p. 23.
Strabo, Geography, IV, 5, 2, 3.
Hanson 2002, p. 28-30; but already in Luttwak 1976, p. 45.
Polak, Kooistra 2013, p. 444.
Polak, Kooistra 2013, p. 435.
Eck 2018, p. 136.
Tacitus, Annals, II, 41, 2, mentions the Chatti and Cherusci as subjected by Germanicus without reserve.
Polak, Kooistra 2013, p. 436.
See Tacitus, Annals, XI, 16, 1; Germany, XXXIII.
For a handsome list: Eck 2013, p. 25.
Will 1987.
Tacitus, Annals, XI, 16, 1.
Pliny the Younger, Letters, II, 7, 2.
Tacitus, Annals, XII, 54.
AÉ 1996, 1106.
Eck 2013, p. 23-24.
Gechter 2006, p. 125-126, aptly speaks of Schwerpunktlager and Dienststellen.
Slofstra 2002, p. 27-28.
Driessen 2007, p. 70-76.
For a similar pattern in Moesia: Karavas 2001, p. 134-136, 147, with map 17.
For the latter: Slofstra 2002, p. 26-27.
See e.g. Schamuhn, Zerl 2009.
Graafstal 2024. The pattern is replicated on the Lower Danube, with the foundation of Oescus closely connected with the settlement of 50,000 Getae…
Tacitus, Annals, IV, 5, 1.
Graafstal 2024.
Tacitus, Annals, III, 40-47; IV, 72-74, respectively.
Becker 2009. How relevant the Waidmarkt evidence remains to be seen, as cities, like forts, will have received at least stub lengths of roads…
Jones, Mattingly 1990, p. 93-95.
This role is hinted at by the milestones of 44 found at Boppard, Kapellen, and Koblenz in Upper Germany (CIL XIII, 9142-9143, 9145). The Rhine…
Graafstal 2017.
Pers. comm. Steve Bödecker.
Vos et alii 2021; Bosman 2021, respectively.
See Graafstal 2023, p. 13.
In 47, Corbulo was about to give them ‘a senate, magistrates and laws’ (Tacitus, Annals, XI, 19, 1).
Coby 2022, p. 38.
Graafstal 2024.
Annals, XI, 19, 3.
Annals, XI, 20, 2.
Polak et alii 2004, p. 249 with appendix 1.
Kemmers 2004.
Kemmers 2008, p. 11-12.
de Weerd 1977.
Blom, Vos 2008, p. 11, 65, 284, 409-412.
Polak et alii 2020, p. 43. The most easterly known specimen, Arnhem-Meinerswijk, occurs at the base of the Rhine delta.
Buijtendorp 2021, p. 71-75.
Graafstal 2023.
See Tacitus, Annals, XI, 18, 1; Pliny the Elder, Natural History, XVI, 76, 203.
Graafstal, Hessing 2021, p. 131-132.
Graafstal 2017.
See n. 139.
Tacitus, Annals, IV, 72, 3.
Polak 2019, p. 639-640.
Graafstal, Hessing 2021, p. 128-130, 136.
E.g. in Wales: Burnham, Davies 2010, p. 40-42.
Bechert 1969.
Hanson 2009.
Polak 2009, p. 951.
Reddé 2006; Vernault 2006.
On the many chronological difficulties: Southern 1997, p. 79-82. Strobel 1987 makes a strong case for the Spring-Summer of 83.
Graafstal 2023. For Domitian: Strobel 1987, p. 427-428.
Strobel 1987, p. 431. For a rebuttal of the view that two German provinces had existed since the Augustan period: Eck 2013, n. 24.
Not a campaign affair, it would appear: Strobel 1987, p. 427, n. 26.
Kemkes 2005, p. 45-48.
Pliny the Younger, Letters, III, 5; Tacitus, Germany, XXXVII, 2.
Strobel 1987, p. 431.
See Martial, Epigrams, II, 2.
Strobel 1987, p. 431-437.
Strobel 1987, p. 435-437.
Strobel 1987, p. 447-449.
Lindner 2018.
At Utrecht-Veldhuizen, possibly in a secondary position within a fast-developing stratigraphic sequence: Graafstal, Den Braven 2020, p. 63.
Assuming that the revetment in question is related to the road’s crossing of the Corbulo canal at Leiden-Roomburg: Hazenberg 2000, p. 34, 36.
Graafstal 2021, p. 119.
E.g. Maxfield 1987, p. 139.
Mattern 2013, p. 216-217.
Vegetius, De re militari, III, 7.
Rankov 2005, p. 179-181.
Rankov 2005, p. 178. Hadrian had the superstructure of Trajan’s magnificent Danube bridge at Drobeta demolished to prevent barbarian incursions (…
Breeze 2015, p. 18.
All measured in QGIS, following the (probable) line of the frontier road.
Roth 1998, p. 196-197, and passim.
Geography, VII, 3, 13, referring to recent Augustan campaigns.
Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, Claudius, I, 2. See also Tacitus, Annals, II, 8, 1.
Graafstal 2023, p. 9.
AÉ 1956, 124.
Polak 2009, p. 949.
Konen 2008, p. 304, a conservative calculation which does not cover the extended military community including grooms and slaves, and the…
Graafstal 2023, p. 8.
British Museum pap. 2851, as emended by Fink 1958, p. 104.
Tacitus, Annals, XIII, 53, 2.
Visser 2015.
Mann 1979, p. 178. See also Hanson 2002.
A concept usefully explored by Coby 2022, but all of this needs to be seen within a context of frequent reports to Rome and fresh imperial mandata…
Graafstal 2023.
See the contributions of Flügel, Scholz, especially in this volume.
Reuter 1997.
Statius, Silvae, I, 1, 50-51.
Eck 2022, p. 5.
Histories, IV, 26, 2.
Breeze 2015, p. 17, with reference to Roth 1998.
Heeren 2017.
Roymans, Heeren 2017.