Many of the ideas expressed in this paper can be found across the range of literature referenced throughout and listed in the bibliography. The historiography of Hadrian’s Wall is substantial, and discussion of its function is frequent. To that extent, it is fair to say that most of the ideas expressed within this paper have also been expressed by others, sometimes implicitly and sometimes explicitly. This paper attempts to pull that discourse together into a more consistent framework and presentation, stimulated by many fruitful discussions over the years with many colleagues, but especially Matt Symonds and Al McCluskey.
From the early 2nd century AD, the Roman Empire had either halted or lost its expansionist momentum. In practice, the Rhine and Danube rivers had functioned as significant lines of demarcation for Roman military distribution in the Empire’s peripheries for decades, supplemented in other frontiers by lateral fortified roads such as the Stanegate system in northern Britannia and the via nova Traiana in the Arabian frontier. Mural barriers were soon added in those frontiers lacking a substantial river or other linear element. In the German limes a timber palisade was constructed for a length of 550 km in the early years of Hadrian’s reign, though felling dates of the timber suggest work began in the final years of Trajan’s reign, c. 117. Shorter lengths of walls known variously as claustra or fossatae and designated collectively as the Fossatum Africae were built across wadis and their surrounding landscapes in North Africa under Hadrian. In Britain, a monumental wall was b...
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For more general accounts and interpretation of Roman frontiers, please see Breeze 2019; Whittaker 1994.
Baatz 2000.
These are found in different portions of the provinces of Mauretania Caesariensis, Numidia, and Tripolitania, and consist of stand-alone or combined…
Breeze, Dobson 2000; Hodgson 2017; Hanson, Maxwell 1983.
Baatz 2000; see also Scholz, Flügel, this volume.
Višnjić, Zanier 2019; see also Višnjić this volume.
To my knowledge, there is no highly detailed account or assessment of any Roman frontier as presented as the evolution of a landscape in both…
Turner et alii 2019.
Haynes 2013.
The distinction of an inner and outer frontier is made by Lattimore 1940 in his work on the Great Wall of China.
Gray 2010.
The key stimulus can be traced back to Luttwak 1976 and critiques of his grand strategy that pointed to anachronistic interpretation. Overviews of…
Hodgson 2017, p. 31-41; Symonds 2021, p. 37-50 provide overviews of the history of the period.
Haselgrove 2016.
Collins 2012, p. 11-12.
Hunter 2025; Hodgson 2017.
Smith et alii 2016.
Hodgson 2025.
Traprain Law, as with the other identified sites of elite barbarian occupation was a hillfort. However, Traprain Law is of a larger size than most…
Welfare, Swan 1995. Note, for example, the series of camps of varying size on Haltwhistle Common.
Breeze 2009.
Breeze 2018; Graafstal 2012; 2018; Hodgson 2017; Poulter 2009; Symonds 2019; 2021; Symonds, Breeze 2016.
Symonds 2005; 2019; 2020. See also Graafstal 2012; Hunneysett 2017.
Graafstal 2012, p. 137-138, and Hodgson 2017, p. 66-69, have highlighted that the turf wall could have been completed in one season of building…
Breeze 2019b, p. 90.
Stevens 1966, p. 39; Graafstal 2012; Hodgson 2017, p. 63.
Hodgson 2017, p. 107-111.
Hodgson 2017, p. 144-145.
There are exceptions, and this highlights a crude distinction between those whose interpretation of the Wall lean toward a processual structural…
A defensive function for the Wall is clear through a range of historic texts, including: Camden 1610, p. 775; Horsley 1732, p. 125, and more…
Collingwood (1921, p. 65) and Eric Birley (1961, p. 273) have proposed the Wall was primarily designed to control the movement of people, and by…
McCluskey 2018.
It should go without saying that the Wall was tall enough that it could not simply be jumped across by a horse, and the presence of the ditch in…
Bidwell 2008.
Collins 2012, p. 80-85.
Foglia 2014.
Donaldson 1988.
Woolliscroft 2001.
Symonds 2018, p. 118-121.
Distinguishing between peaceful and hostile visitors to the Wall is overly simplistic. Peaceful in this paper means approaching the Wall without…
Hodgson 2017, p. 160-166.
Mann 1979.
Hodgson (2017, p. 106) provides an account and discussion of this, and destruction deposits from the fort at Halton Chesters on the Wall and…
Austin, Rankov 1995 provide a wide ranging detail on Roman intelligence gathering.
Collins 2018.
The Wall may have prompted increased seaborne raiding, and it is notable that the west coast of Britannia retained a series of forts, and a new…
Collins 2012 sets out the evidence, with an update in Collins, Symonds 2019, p. 68-76.
Crow 1986; also this volume.